公民就会试图替换统治者。解释一下,Ŵ – W ( e, T) > 0时,条件(21)意味着替换成本足够低,即c → 0,公民将会试图替换这个背离隐含约定和抢夺所有产出的统治者。这种替换的选择将会明显地影响统治者的激励相容约束。特别是,如果(21)式持续存在,背离和抢夺一切的统治者知道随着概率 的变化,他将被替换。因为在未来的日子里, Ŵ – W ( e, T) > 0,公民将会在每个未来期间试图替换该统治者。考虑到这一点,统治者的激励相容约束将从(8)式变为:
命题5 假设在替换的博弈中,替换成本c很小,即 c → 0 。如果(22)式成立,政治科斯定理(PCT)就适用,并且投资的有效水平可能被维持。较好的制衡制度,用较大的 p来衡量,使得(22)式的成立变得更加可能。当(22)式不成立时,投资的有效水平不可能得以实现。然而,只要(24)式成立,市场生产就可能被维持,并且在这种情况下,均衡投资由满足(23)式的 来保证。较好的制衡制度,即较大的 p ,也在这种情况下增加了均衡投资。
我要感谢拉斐尔·奥尔·米利亚姆·布鲁恩(Raphael Auer Miriam Bruhn)的突出的研究协助和世界银行正确制度会议(the World Bank Appropriate Institutions conference)和国际社会促进新制度经济学会议(the International Society for New Institutional Economics conference)的研讨会的与会者们。我还要感谢Simeon Djankov, Simon Johnson, James Robinson和两名匿名的审阅人。
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(吴中璞译,盛洪校)
* 2003 Association for Comparative Economic Studies. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
[4] 实施难题可能是由不完全的信息、签约成本或有限理性引起的,例子见Anderlini and Felli (1998) ,Dixit and Olson (2000), Farrell (1987), 和 McKelvey and Page (1999)。我们重点关注承诺难题,因为它们对政治科斯定理意义重大。有关交易费用和企业组织的文献,例子见Williamson (1985), Grossman and Hart (1986), 和 Hart and Moore (1990),重点关注如果契约不完善,为什么财产所有权的分配可能对激励很重要。非正式地试图将交易费用的推理扩展到政治学上,包括North (1990)和 Spiller和Tommasi(2002)。
在2000年前后,在解决所谓的国有企业问题时,政府组建了一些大型的企业集团,如中国石油,中国石化,并授予它们垄断权。一些传统的垄断领域,如商业银行,盐业,铁路等,仍保持着垄断状态。有些开始进行的市场化的打破垄断的改革又向后退,如电信业曾经出现过六家基础业务运营商,但后来又合并成三个。这些垄断企业基本上是掌握着基础资源或处于产业的上游,因而它们的产品具有着较低的需求弹性,它们通过设定垄断高价,如商业银行利率差高出市场竞争利率差的66~100%(Sheng, Zhao, and Yang, 2015, p.288),成品油税前零售价格高于主要国家平均水平的31%(Sheng and Qian,2015, p.88),等等,从市场中的下游企业和民众那里攫取利润。
* 此文为作者向2018年11月在哈佛大学费正清中国研究中心举办的《改革开放四十年研讨会》提交的论文,英文版发表于Man and the Economy, Volume 6, Issue 1, 2019.
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据哈耶克,对民主失灵的解决方法是法治,即法的统治(rule of law),而不是人的统治(rule by men)。法治的极致形式就是宪政,就是通过宪法对权力进行制约。然而,法的统治仍然要由人来执行(rule of law by men)。悖论在于,如果要约束权力,尤其是占据权力顶峰的权力,或实际上的最大权力(如军权),是否要有更大的权力?如果没有的话,依据经济人假设,掌握权力的人怎么可能自觉地约束自己?如果有的话,这个更大的权力谁来约束?
实际上,经济学家们已经发现了这个问题。如桑塔费学派已经指出,如果仅有自利的经济人,一个社会只能走向崩溃;即使加上弱互惠者,也避免不了这样的命运,因为他们无法阻止自利者违约以自肥的行为。只有演化出强互惠者,即一些不惜付出额外成本以维护市场秩序和契约原则的人,才可能使社会生存和发展(Bowles and Gintis,2004)。然而,这些强互惠者是如何演化出来的,却没有答案。
第二个故事是说,独立战争结束后,1783年,有一批青年军官因军晌未兑现而企图发动兵变,推翻大陆议会。华盛顿知道此事,就到军营中去说服他们放弃哗变。军官们听从了华盛顿的劝告。从此美国就形成了一个重要传统,即军队要在文官政体的控制之下(the military serves under civilian control)。就在同一年年底,居功至伟的华盛顿就将军队的指挥权交回大陆议会,从而创造了一个宪政先例,即美国军队从属于文官政权(America’s military is subordinate to civilian authority)。不能不说,这是宪政制度的最重要原则。因为掌握了军队,就掌握了实际使用公共暴力的权力,一旦为一已之私而利用,无人能挡,宪政结构也就毫无保障。
不能不说,华盛顿的行为对美国宪政制度做出了关键性的贡献。因为“一个在华盛顿位置上的得胜将军满可以借此攫取权力,但华盛顿回到了他的私人生活中。”(A triumphant general in Washington’s position might have tried to seize power, but Washington returned to private life.)(美国国家历史博物馆)是什么力量让他放弃了在经济人看来的一个巨大诱惑?显然,是他内心的自律的道德力量。那么,这一道德力量是从哪来的呢?
Bowles, 2004, Samuel, and Gintis, Herbert, The evolution of strong reciprocity: cooperation in heterogeneous populations, Theoretical Population Biology 65.1(February 2004). 中译文载汪丁丁等主编,2005,《走向统一的社会科学:来自桑塔费学派的看法》,上海世纪出版集团。
17. 安德鲁. 斯科特等: “从行为角度看,对经济制度和社会制度的研究可以与对N人博弈的分析相等同”。参见Andrew Schotter, Gerhard Schwodiauer: “Economics and the Theory of Games: A Survey”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. XVIII June, 1980.17. 关于纳什均衡概念, 请参看同上文章。
18. 参见:Wolfram Elsner, “Adam Smith’s Model of the Origins and Emergence of Institutions”, Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. XXIII No. 1, March, 1989.19. 同15.。